Colonial Leasers at What Tried to Work Out a Plan to Defend Themselves Agains the French

Northward American theater of the worldwide Seven Years' War

This article is almost the conflict from 1754 to 1763. For the serial of conflicts betwixt 1688 and 1763, see French and Indian Wars.

French and Indian State of war
Part of the Seven Years' War
The state of war theater
Date 1754–1763 Location North America Consequence British victory Treaty of Paris (1763) Territorial changes French republic cedes New France eastward of the Mississippi River to Groovy Uk, retaining Saint Pierre and Miquelon, and transfers Louisiana to Spain
Belligerents
Great Great britain British America Iroquois Confederacy Wyandot of Ohio Land Catawba Cherokee Nation (before 1758) Mingo (briefly)	Kingdom of French republic New French republic Wabanaki Confederacy Abenaki Mi'kmaw militia Algonquin Lenape Ojibwa Ottawa Shawnee Wyandot of Fort Detroit
Commanders and leaders
Jeffery Amherst Edward Braddock † James Wolfe † Earl of Loudoun James Abercrombie Edward Boscawen George Washington John Forbes George Monro Sir William Johnson Tanacharison Sayenqueraghta	Louis-Joseph de Montcalm † Marquis de Vaudreuil Businesswoman Dieskau (Pw) François-Marie de Lignery † Chevalier de Lévis (POW) Joseph de Jumonville † Marquis Duquesne Daniel Lienard de Beaujeu † Captain Jacobs † Killbuck Shingas Pontiac
Strength
42,000 regulars and militia (peak strength, 1758)[1]	10,000 regulars (troupes de la terre and troupes de la marine, meridian strength, 1757)[2]
Casualties and losses
i,512 killed in action 1,500 died of wounds 10,400 died of disease[three]	Unknown

The French and Indian State of war (1754–1763) was a theater of the Seven Years' War, which pitted the North American colonies of the British Empire against those of the French, each side existence supported by various Native American tribes. At the start of the state of war, the French colonies had a population of roughly lx,000 settlers, compared with two million in the British colonies.^[iv] The outnumbered French particularly depended on the natives.^[five]

Two years into the French and Indian War, in 1756, Corking United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland declared war on France, beginning the worldwide Vii Years' War. Many view the French and Indian War as being just the American theater of this conflict; even so, in the United States the French and Indian War is viewed equally a singular conflict which was not associated with whatsoever European state of war.^{[half dozen]} French Canadians call information technology Guerre de la Conquête ('War of the Conquest').^{[7] [eight]}

The British colonists were supported at diverse times by the Iroquois, Catawba, and Cherokee tribes, and the French colonists were supported by Wabanaki Confederacy member tribes Abenaki and Mi'kmaq, and the Algonquin, Lenape, Ojibwa, Ottawa, Shawnee, and Wyandot tribes.^[9] Fighting took place primarily forth the frontiers between New France and the British colonies, from the Province of Virginia in the south to Newfoundland in the north. Information technology began with a dispute over control of the confluence of the Allegheny River and Monongahela River chosen the Forks of the Ohio, and the site of the French Fort Duquesne at the location that later became Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. The dispute erupted into violence in the Boxing of Jumonville Glen in May 1754, during which Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year-old George Washington ambushed a French patrol.^[10]

In 1755, half-dozen colonial governors met with General Edward Braddock, the newly arrived British Army commander, and planned a four-way set on on the French. None succeeded, and the chief effort by Braddock proved a disaster; he lost the Battle of the Monongahela on July 9, 1755, and died a few days subsequently. British operations failed in the borderland areas of the Province of Pennsylvania and the Province of New York during 1755–57 due to a combination of poor management, internal divisions, effective Canadian scouts, French regular forces, and Native warrior allies. In 1755, the British captured Fort Beauséjour on the border separating Nova Scotia from Acadia, and they ordered the expulsion of the Acadians (1755–64) soon later. Orders for the displacement were given by Commander-in-Chief William Shirley without direction from Neat Britain. The Acadians were expelled, both those captured in artillery and those who had sworn the loyalty oath to the Rex. Natives besides were driven off the state to make way for settlers from New England.^[eleven]

The British colonial authorities fell in the region of Nova Scotia subsequently several disastrous campaigns in 1757, including a failed expedition against Louisbourg and the Siege of Fort William Henry; this concluding was followed by the Natives torturing and massacring their colonial victims. William Pitt came to power and significantly increased British military resources in the colonies at a time when France was unwilling to risk large convoys to aid the express forces that they had in New France, preferring to concentrate their forces against Prussia and its allies who were at present engaged in the Seven Years' State of war in Europe. The disharmonize in Ohio ended in 1758 with the British–American victory in the Ohio Country. Betwixt 1758 and 1760, the British armed forces launched a campaign to capture French Canada. They succeeded in capturing territory in surrounding colonies and ultimately the city of Quebec (1759). The post-obit year the British were victorious in the Montreal Entrada in which the French ceded Canada in accordance with the Treaty of Paris (1763).

France besides ceded its territory east of the Mississippi to Swell Britain, besides as French Louisiana due west of the Mississippi River to its marry Kingdom of spain in compensation for Spain'southward loss to Britain of Spanish Florida. (Spain had ceded Florida to United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in exchange for the return of Havana, Cuba.) France's colonial presence north of the Caribbean area was reduced to the islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, confirming Great United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland's position as the dominant colonial ability in northern America.

Nomenclature

In British America, wars were frequently named later the sitting British monarch, such as Male monarch William'due south War or Queen Anne's War. There had already been a Rex George'due south State of war in the 1740s during the reign of Male monarch George 2, and so British colonists named this disharmonize afterward their opponents, and it became known as the French and Indian War.^[12] This continues as the standard proper noun for the war in the United States, although Indians fought on both sides of the conflict. It as well led into the Seven Years' State of war overseas, a much larger conflict between France and United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland that did non involve the American colonies; some historians make a connection between the French and Indian War and the Seven Years' War overseas, but most residents of the U.s. consider them as ii divide conflicts—only ane of which involved the American colonies,^[13] and American historians by and large use the traditional name. Less ofttimes used names for the war include the Fourth Intercolonial State of war and the Neat State of war for the Empire.^[12]

Belligerents during the Seven Years' War. Canadians and Europeans view the French and Indian War as a theater of the Seven Years' War, while Americans view it a separate conflict.

In Europe, the French and Indian War is conflated into the Seven Years' War and not given a carve up name. "Seven Years" refers to events in Europe, from the official declaration of war in 1756—two years after the French and Indian War had started—to the signing of the peace treaty in 1763. The French and Indian State of war in America, by contrast, was largely concluded in six years from the Battle of Jumonville Glen in 1754 to the capture of Montreal in 1760.^[12]

Canadians conflate both the European and American conflicts into the Vii Years' War ( Guerre de Sept Ans ).^[vii] French Canadians also utilise the term "War of Conquest" ( Guerre de la Conquête ), since it is the war in which New French republic was conquered past the British and became part of the British Empire. In Quebec, this term was promoted by popular historians Jacques Lacoursière and Denis Vaugeois, who borrowed from the ideas of Maurice Séguin in considering this war as a dramatic tipping signal of French Canadian identity and nationhood.^[14]

Groundwork

At this time, N America east of the Mississippi River was largely claimed by either Nifty United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland or France. Large areas had no colonial settlements. The French population numbered about 75,000 and was heavily full-bodied forth the St. Lawrence River valley, with some also in Acadia (present-twenty-four hours New Brunswick and parts of Nova Scotia), including Île Royale (Cape Breton Island). Fewer lived in New Orleans; Biloxi, Mississippi; Mobile, Alabama; and pocket-size settlements in the Illinois Land, hugging the due east side of the Mississippi River and its tributaries. French fur traders and trappers traveled throughout the St. Lawrence and Mississippi watersheds, did business with local Indian tribes, and often married Indian women.^[fifteen] Traders married daughters of chiefs, creating high-ranking unions.

British settlers outnumbered the French 20 to 1^[16] with a population of virtually ane.v meg ranged along the Atlantic coast of the continent from Nova Scotia and the Colony of Newfoundland in the northward to the Province of Georgia in the south.^[17] Many of the older colonies' country claims extended arbitrarily far to the westward, as the extent of the continent was unknown at the fourth dimension when their provincial charters were granted. Their population centers were along the coast, just the settlements were growing into the interior. The British captured Nova Scotia from France in 1713, which still had a significant French-speaking population. U.k. also claimed Rupert's Land where the Hudson'southward Bay Company traded for furs with local Indian tribes.

Between the French and British colonists, big areas were dominated by Indian tribes. To the north, the Mi'kmaq and the Abenakis were engaged in Father Le Loutre's State of war and still held sway in parts of Nova Scotia, Acadia, and the eastern portions of the province of Canada, also as much of Maine.^[eighteen] The Iroquois Confederation dominated much of upstate New York and the Ohio State, although Ohio also included Algonquian-speaking populations of Delaware and Shawnee, as well equally Iroquoian-speaking Mingos. These tribes were formally under Iroquois rule and were express by them in their authorisation to make agreements.^[19] The Iroquois Confederation initially held a stance of neutrality to ensure connected trade with both French and British. Though maintaining this stance proved difficult as the Iroquois Confederation tribes sided and supported French or British causes depending on which side provided the most beneficial trade.^[20]

The Southeast interior was dominated by Siouan-speaking Catawbas, Muskogee-speaking Creeks and Choctaw, and the Iroquoian-speaking Cherokee tribes.^[21] When war broke out, the French colonists used their trading connections to recruit fighters from tribes in western portions of the Swell Lakes region, which was not directly subject area to the conflict between the French and British; these included the Hurons, Mississaugas, Ojibwas, Winnebagos, and Potawatomi.

The British colonists were supported in the state of war by the Iroquois 6 Nations and also past the Cherokees, until differences sparked the Anglo-Cherokee War in 1758. In 1758, the Province of Pennsylvania successfully negotiated the Treaty of Easton in which a number of tribes in the Ohio Land promised neutrality in exchange for land concessions and other considerations. Most of the other northern tribes sided with the French, their primary trading partner and supplier of arms. The Creeks and Cherokees were subject to diplomatic efforts by both the French and British to gain either their support or neutrality in the conflict.^{[ citation needed ]}

The Cherokee, c. 1762. The Cherokee were bailiwick to diplomatic efforts from the British and French in order to proceeds their support or neutrality in the issue of a conflict.

At this fourth dimension, Kingdom of spain claimed only the province of Florida in eastern America. It controlled Cuba and other territories in the West Indies that became military objectives in the Seven Years' War. Florida's European population was a few hundred, concentrated in St. Augustine.^[22]

In that location were no French regular army troops stationed in America at the onset of war. New France was dedicated past about 3,000 troupes de la marine, companies of colonial regulars (some of whom had significant woodland combat feel). The colonial regime recruited militia support when needed. The British had few troops. Most of the British colonies mustered local militia companies to deal with Indian threats, more often than not ill trained and available merely for short periods, just they did not have any standing forces. Virginia, by contrast, had a large frontier with several companies of British regulars.^{[ citation needed ]}

When hostilities began, the British colonial governments preferred operating independently of one another and of the authorities in London. This situation complicated negotiations with Indian tribes, whose territories often encompassed land claimed by multiple colonies. As the war progressed, the leaders of the British Regular army establishment tried to impose constraints and demands on the colonial administrations.^{[ citation needed ]}

Céloron's expedition

New France's Governor-General Roland-Michel Barrin de La Galissonière was concerned about the incursion and expanding influence in the Ohio Country of British colonial traders such equally George Croghan. In June 1747, he ordered Pierre-Joseph Céloron to lead a war machine expedition through the area. Its objectives were:

• to reaffirm to New France'south Indian allies that their trading arrangements with colonists were exclusive to those authorized by New French republic
• to confirm Indian help in asserting and maintaining the French claim to the territories which French explorers had claimed
• to discourage any alliances betwixt Uk and local Indian tribes
• to impress the Indians with a French show of force confronting British colonial settler incursion, unauthorized trading expeditions, and general trespass against French claims^[23]

Céloron's expedition forcefulness consisted of about 200 Troupes de la marine and 30 Indians, and they covered about 3,000 miles (iv,800 km) between June and November 1749. They went upwards the St. Lawrence, continued along the northern shore of Lake Ontario, crossed the portage at Niagara, and followed the southern shore of Lake Erie. At the Chautauqua Portage near Barcelona, New York, the expedition moved inland to the Allegheny River, which it followed to the site of Pittsburgh. There Céloron buried lead plates engraved with the French claim to the Ohio Country.^[23] Whenever he encountered British colonial merchants or fur-traders, he informed them of the French claims on the territory and told them to leave.^[23]

Céloron's expedition arrived at Logstown where the Indians in the area informed him that they owned the Ohio Country and that they would trade with the British colonists regardless of the French.^[24] He continued south until his expedition reached the confluence of the Ohio and the Miami rivers, which lay just southward of the hamlet of Pickawillany, the domicile of the Miami chief known as "Erstwhile Briton". Céloron threatened Old Briton with severe consequences if he continued to merchandise with British colonists, but Old Briton ignored the warning. Céloron returned disappointedly to Montreal in November 1749.^[25]

Céloron wrote an extensively detailed report. "All I tin can say is that the Natives of these localities are very badly disposed towards the French," he wrote, "and are entirely devoted to the English. I don't know in what way they could be brought back."^[24] Even before his return to Montreal, reports on the state of affairs in the Ohio Country were making their way to London and Paris, each side proposing that action be taken. Massachusetts governor William Shirley was particularly forceful, stating that British colonists would not be safe every bit long as the French were present.^[26]

Negotiations

Map of European colonies in North America, c. 1750. Disputes over territorial claims persisted later on the end of King George'due south War in 1748.

The War of the Austrian Succession ended in 1748 with the signing of the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, which was primarily focused on resolving issues in Europe. The problems of conflicting territorial claims betwixt British and French colonies were turned over to a commission, but it reached no decision. Frontier areas were claimed past both sides, from Nova Scotia and Acadia in the north to the Ohio Country in the south. The disputes likewise extended into the Atlantic Ocean, where both powers wanted admission to the rich fisheries of the Grand Banks off Newfoundland.^{[ citation needed ]}

In 1749, the British authorities gave land to the Ohio Visitor of Virginia for the purpose of developing trade and settlements in the Ohio Country.^[27] The grant required that it settle 100 families in the territory and construct a fort for their protection. Only the territory was also claimed by Pennsylvania, and both colonies began pushing for action to ameliorate their respective claims.^[28] In 1750, Christopher Gist explored the Ohio territory, acting on behalf of both Virginia and the company, and he opened negotiations with the Indian tribes at Logstown.^[29] He completed the 1752 Treaty of Logstown in which the local Indians agreed to terms through their "Half-King" Tanacharison and an Iroquois representative. These terms included permission to build a potent house at the oral cavity of the Monongahela River on the modern site of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania.^[30]

Escalation in Ohio State

Governor-General of New French republic Marquis de la Jonquière died on March 17, 1752, and he was temporarily replaced by Charles le Moyne de Longueuil. His permanent replacement was to be the Marquis Duquesne, but he did not arrive in New France until 1752 to take over the postal service.^[31] The standing British activity in the Ohio territories prompted Longueuil to dispatch another expedition to the area under the command of Charles Michel de Langlade, an officeholder in the Troupes de la Marine. Langlade was given 300 men, including French-Canadians and warriors of the Ottawa tribe. His objective was to punish the Miami people of Pickawillany for non post-obit Céloron's orders to cease trading with the British. On June 21, the French war party attacked the trading center at Pickawillany, capturing three traders^[25] and killing 14 Miami Indians, including Old Briton. He was reportedly ritually cannibalized by some Indians in the expedition party.

Structure of French fortifications

Fort Le Boeuf in 1754. In the jump of 1753, the French began to build a series of forts in the Ohio Country.

In the bound of 1753, Paul Marin de la Malgue was given command of a two,000-homo force of Troupes de la Marine and Indians. His orders were to protect the King's state in the Ohio Valley from the British. Marin followed the route that Céloron had mapped out 4 years earlier. Céloron, however, had limited the record of French claims to the burying of lead plates, whereas Marin synthetic and garrisoned forts. He first synthetic Fort Presque Isle on Lake Erie'south southward shore about Erie, Pennsylvania, and he had a route built to the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. He so constructed a 2d fort at Fort Le Boeuf in Waterford, Pennsylvania, designed to guard the headwaters of LeBoeuf Creek. As he moved south, he drove off or captured British traders, alarming both the British and the Iroquois. Tanaghrisson was a chief of the Mingo Indians, who were remnants of Iroquois and other tribes who had been driven w by colonial expansion. He intensely disliked the French whom he accused of killing and eating his begetter. He traveled to Fort Le Boeuf and threatened the French with military action, which Marin contemptuously dismissed.^[32]

The Iroquois sent runners to the manor of William Johnson in upstate New York, who was the British Superintendent for Indian Affairs in the New York region and beyond. Johnson was known to the Iroquois as Warraghiggey, meaning "he who does great things." He spoke their languages and had become a respected honorary member of the Iroquois Confederacy in the area, and he was made a colonel of the Iroquois in 1746; he was later commissioned as a colonel of the Western New York Militia.

The Indian representatives and Johnson met with Governor George Clinton and officials from some of the other American colonies at Albany, New York. Mohawk Chief Hendrick was the speaker of their tribal council, and he insisted that the British bide by their obligations^{[ which? ]} and block French expansion. Clinton did not respond to his satisfaction, and Hendrick said that the "Covenant Chain" was broken, a long-standing friendly relationship between the Iroquois Confederacy and the British Crown.

Virginia's response

Governor Robert Dinwiddie of Virginia was an investor in the Ohio Company, which stood to lose money if the French held their claim.^[33] He ordered 21-twelvemonth-old Major George Washington (whose brother was another Ohio Visitor investor) of the Virginia Regiment to warn the French to get out Virginia territory in October 1753.^[34] Washington left with a small party, picking up Jacob Van Braam every bit an interpreter, Christopher Gist (a visitor surveyor working in the area), and a few Mingos led by Tanaghrisson. On December 12, Washington and his men reached Fort Le Boeuf.^{[35] [36]}

Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre succeeded Marin every bit commander of the French forces afterwards Marin died on October 29, and he invited Washington to dine with him. Over dinner, Washington presented Saint-Pierre with the letter from Dinwiddie demanding an immediate French withdrawal from the Ohio Country. Saint-Pierre said, "Every bit to the Summons yous send me to retire, I exercise not think myself obliged to obey it."^[37] He told Washington that France'south claim to the region was superior to that of the British, since René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle had explored the Ohio Country virtually a century earlier.^[38]

Washington'south political party left Fort Le Boeuf early December 16 and arrived in Williamsburg on January 16, 1754. He stated in his report, "The French had swept southward",^[39] detailing the steps which they had taken to fortify the area, and their intention to fortify the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers.^[40]

Grade of state of war

Even before Washington returned, Dinwiddie had sent a visitor of 40 men under William Trent to that point where they began structure of a small stockaded fort in the early months of 1754.^[41] Governor Duquesne sent boosted French forces under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de Contrecœur to relieve Saint-Pierre during the same period, and Contrecœur led 500 men southward from Fort Venango on April 5, 1754.^[42] These forces arrived at the fort on Apr 16, but Contrecœur generously allowed Trent's small visitor to withdraw. He purchased their construction tools to continue building what became Fort Duquesne.^[43]

Early engagements

Dinwiddie had ordered Washington to lead a larger force to assist Trent in his work, and Washington learned of Trent'southward retreat while he was en road.^[44] Mingo sachem Tanaghrisson had promised support to the British, so Washington continued toward Fort Duquesne and met with him. He so learned of a French scouting political party in the area from a warrior sent by Tanaghrisson, so he added Tanaghrisson'due south dozen Mingo warriors to his ain party. Washington'due south combined forcefulness of 52 ambushed twoscore Canadiens (French colonists of New France) on the morning of May 28 in what became known equally the Battle of Jumonville Glen.^[45] They killed many of the Canadiens, including their commanding officer Joseph Coulon de Jumonville, whose head was reportedly split open by Tanaghrisson with a tomahawk. Historian Fred Anderson suggests that Tanaghrisson was acting to proceeds the support of the British and to regain authorisation over his own people. They had been inclined to support the French, with whom they had long trading relationships. I of Tanaghrisson's men told Contrecoeur that Jumonville had been killed by British musket burn.^[46] Historians generally consider the Battle of Jumonville Glen as the opening battle of the French and Indian War in North America, and the start of hostilities in the Ohio valley.

Washington with his war quango during the Battle of Fort Necessity. After deliberations, it was decided to withdraw, and surrender the fort.

Following the battle, Washington pulled back several miles and established Fort Necessity, which the Canadians attacked under the command of Jumonville's brother at the Battle of Fort Necessity on July 3. Washington surrendered and negotiated a withdrawal under arms. I of his men reported that the Canadian force was accompanied by Shawnee, Delaware, and Mingo warriors—only those whom Tanaghrisson was seeking to influence.^[47]

News of the 2 battles reached England in August. After several months of negotiations, the authorities of the Knuckles of Newcastle decided to send an army expedition the following year to dislodge the French.^[48] They chose Major General Edward Braddock to atomic number 82 the trek.^[49] Word of the British military machine plans leaked to French republic well earlier Braddock's difference for N America. In response, King Louis XV dispatched six regiments to New France under the command of Businesswoman Dieskau in 1755.^[50] The British sent out their fleet in February 1755, intending to blockade French ports, but the French fleet had already sailed. Admiral Edward Hawke discrete a fast squadron to Northward America in an effort to intercept them.

In June 1755, the British captured French naval ships sent to provide state of war matériel to the Acadian and Mi'kmaw militias in Nova Scotia.

In a second British action, Admiral Edward Boscawen fired on the French ship Alcide on June 8, 1755, capturing her and 2 troop ships.^[51] The British harassed French aircraft throughout 1755, seizing ships and capturing seamen. These actions contributed to the eventual formal declarations of war in spring 1756.^[52]

An early important political response to the opening of hostilities was the convening of the Albany Congress in June and July, 1754. The goal of the congress was to formalize a unified front in trade and negotiations with the Indians, since the allegiance of the diverse tribes and nations was seen to be pivotal in the war that was unfolding. The program that the delegates agreed to was neither ratified by the colonial legislatures nor approved by the Crown. Notwithstanding, the format of the congress and many specifics of the plan became the image for confederation during the State of war of Independence.

British campaigns, 1755

The British formed an aggressive plan of operations for 1755. General Braddock was to lead the expedition to Fort Duquesne,^[53] while Massachusetts governor William Shirley was given the task of fortifying Fort Oswego and attacking Fort Niagara. Sir William Johnson was to capture Fort St. Frédéric at Crown Betoken, New York,^[54] and Lieutenant Colonel Robert Monckton was to capture Fort Beauséjour to the eastward on the frontier between Nova Scotia and Acadia.^[55]

Braddock led almost ane,500 army troops and provincial militia on the Braddock expedition in June 1755 to take Fort Duquesne, with George Washington equally one of his aides. The expedition was a disaster. It was attacked by French regulars, Canadian Militiamen, and Indian warriors ambushing them from hiding places up in trees and backside logs, and Braddock called for a retreat. He was killed and approximately i,000 British soldiers were killed or injured.^[53] The remaining 500 British troops retreated to Virginia, led by Washington. Washington and Thomas Gage played key roles in organizing the retreat—ii future opponents in the American Revolutionary State of war.

The British government initiated a plan to increase their military machine capability in preparation for war post-obit news of Braddock's defeat and the outset of parliament'south session in Nov 1755. Amidst the early legislative measures were the Recruiting Deed 1756,^[56] the Commissions to Foreign Protestants Act 1756^[57] for the Royal American Regiment, the Navigation Act 1756,^[58] and the Constancy of Acts 1756.^[59] England passed the Naval Prize Human activity 1756 following the proclamation of state of war on May 17 to allow the capture of ships and constitute privateering.^[threescore]

The French caused a copy of the British war plans, including the activities of Shirley and Johnson. Shirley's efforts to fortify Oswego were bogged down in logistical difficulties, exacerbated past his inexperience in managing large expeditions. In conjunction, he was made aware that the French were massing for an attack on Fort Oswego in his absence when he planned to attack Fort Niagara. Every bit a response, he left garrisons at Oswego, Fort Bull, and Fort Williams, the final two located on the Oneida Carry betwixt the Mohawk River and Forest Creek at Rome, New York. Supplies were cached at Fort Balderdash for utilise in the projected assail on Niagara.

Johnson'due south trek was amend organized than Shirley'due south, which was noticed by New France'southward governor the Marquis de Vaudreuil. Vaudreuil had been concerned about the extended supply line to the forts on the Ohio, and he had sent Baron Dieskau to lead the defenses at Frontenac confronting Shirley's expected assault. Vaudreuil saw Johnson equally the larger threat and sent Dieskau to Fort St. Frédéric to meet that threat. Dieskau planned to attack the British encampment at Fort Edward at the upper end of navigation on the Hudson River, but Johnson had strongly fortified it, and Dieskau's Indian support was reluctant to attack. The 2 forces finally met in the encarmine Battle of Lake George betwixt Fort Edward and Fort William Henry. The battle ended inconclusively, with both sides withdrawing from the field. Johnson's advance stopped at Fort William Henry, and the French withdrew to Ticonderoga Point, where they began the construction of Fort Carillon (after renamed Fort Ticonderoga after the British captured it in 1759).

Colonel Monckton captured Fort Beauséjour in June 1755 in the sole British success that year, cut off the French Fortress Louisbourg from land-based reinforcements. To cut vital supplies to Louisbourg, Nova Scotia's Governor Charles Lawrence ordered the deportation of the French-speaking Acadian population from the area. Monckton'south forces, including companies of Rogers' Rangers, forcibly removed thousands of Acadians, chasing downwardly many who resisted and sometimes committing atrocities. Cutting off supplies to Louisbourg led to its demise.^[61] The Acadian resistance was sometimes quite stiff, in concert with Indian allies including the Mi'kmaq, with ongoing frontier raids against Dartmouth and Lunenburg, among others. The only clashes of any size were at Petitcodiac in 1755 and at Bloody Creek near Annapolis Royal in 1757, other than the campaigns to miscarry the Acadians ranging around the Bay of Fundy, on the Petitcodiac and St. John rivers, and Île Saint-Jean.

French victories, 1756–1757

Post-obit the death of Braddock, William Shirley assumed control of British forces in North America, and he laid out his plans for 1756 at a meeting in Albany in December 1755. He proposed renewing the efforts to capture Niagara, Crown Betoken, and Duquesne, with attacks on Fort Frontenac on the north shore of Lake Ontario and an expedition through the wilderness of the Maine district and down the Chaudière River to attack the metropolis of Quebec. His program, notwithstanding, got bogged down by disagreements and disputes with others, including William Johnson and New York'south Governor Sir Charles Hardy, and consequently gained petty support.

Newcastle replaced him in January 1756 with Lord Loudoun, with Major General James Abercrombie as his second in control. Neither of these men had every bit much campaign experience every bit the trio of officers whom France sent to North America.^[52] French regular regular army reinforcements arrived in New French republic in May 1756, led past Major General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm and seconded past the Chevalier de Lévis and Colonel François-Charles de Bourlamaque, all experienced veterans from the State of war of the Austrian Succession. On May xviii, 1756, United kingdom formally declared war on French republic, which expanded the state of war into Europe and came to be known equally the Seven Years' War.

Governor Vaudreuil had ambitions to become the French commander in chief, in improver to his part as governor, and he acted during the winter of 1756 before those reinforcements arrived. Scouts had reported the weakness of the British supply chain, so he ordered an assail confronting the forts which Shirley had erected at the Oneida Carry. In the Boxing of Fort Bull, French forces destroyed the fort and big quantities of supplies, including 45,000 pounds of gunpowder. They set dorsum any British hopes for campaigns on Lake Ontario and endangered the Oswego garrison, already curt on supplies. French forces in the Ohio valley also connected to intrigue with Indians throughout the area, encouraging them to raid frontier settlements. This led to ongoing alarms along the western frontiers, with streams of refugees returning e to go away from the action.

The new British command was non in place until July. Abercrombie arrived in Albany but refused to have any pregnant deportment until Loudoun approved them, and Montcalm took bold activeness against his inertia. He built on Vaudreuil's work harassing the Oswego garrison and executed a strategic feint by moving his headquarters to Ticonderoga, equally if to presage another attack along Lake George. With Abercrombie pinned down at Albany, Montcalm slipped away and led the successful assault on Oswego in August. In the aftermath, Montcalm and the Indians under his command disagreed almost the disposition of prisoners' personal effects. The Europeans did not consider them prizes and prevented the Indians from stripping the prisoners of their valuables, which angered the Indians.

Loudoun was a capable administrator but a cautious field commander, and he planned ane major performance for 1757: an assault on New France's capital of Quebec. He left a sizable force at Fort William Henry to distract Montcalm and began organizing for the expedition to Quebec. He was then ordered to attack Louisbourg showtime by William Pitt, the Secretary of Land responsible for the colonies. The expedition was beset by delays of all kinds just was finally ready to canvas from Halifax, Nova Scotia, in early August. In the meantime, French ships had escaped the British blockade of the French declension, and a fleet awaited Loudoun at Louisbourg which outnumbered the British fleet. Faced with this strength, Loudoun returned to New York amid news that a massacre had occurred at Fort William Henry.

Montcalm attempts to stop native warriors from attacking the British. A number of British soldiers were killed later on the Siege of Fort William Henry.

French irregular forces (Canadian scouts and Indians) harassed Fort William Henry throughout the first half of 1757. In Jan, they ambushed British rangers near Ticonderoga. In Feb, they launched a raid against the position across the frozen Lake George, destroying storehouses and buildings outside the chief fortification. In early August, Montcalm and 7,000 troops besieged the fort, which capitulated with an agreement to withdraw under parole. When the withdrawal began, some of Montcalm'south Indian allies attacked the British cavalcade because they were angry about the lost opportunity for loot, killing and capturing several hundred men, women, children, and slaves. The aftermath of the siege may accept contributed to the transmission of smallpox into remote Indian populations, as some Indians were reported to take traveled from beyond the Mississippi to participate in the entrada and returned after. Modern writer William Nester believes that the Indians might have been exposed to European carriers, although no proof exists.^[62]

British conquest, 1758–1760

Vaudreuil and Montcalm were minimally resupplied in 1758, equally the British blockade of the French coastline limited French aircraft. The situation in New France was further exacerbated by a poor harvest in 1757, a difficult winter, and the allegedly decadent machinations of François Bigot, the intendant of the territory. His schemes to supply the colony inflated prices and were believed past Montcalm to line his pockets and those of his associates. A massive outbreak of smallpox among western Indian tribes led many of them to stay away from trading in 1758. The affliction probably spread through the crowded weather at William Henry after the battle;^[63] yet the Indians blamed the French for bringing "bad medicine" as well as denying them prizes at Fort William Henry.

Montcalm focused his meager resources on the defence force of the St. Lawrence, with primary defenses at Carillon, Quebec, and Louisbourg, while Vaudreuil argued unsuccessfully for a continuation of the raiding tactics that had worked quite finer in previous years.^[64] The British failures in North America combined with other failures in the European theater and led to Newcastle's fall from power along with the Duke of Cumberland, his principal armed services advisor.

British forces besieging the Fortress of Louisbourg. The French fortress fell in July 1758 later a 48-solar day siege.

Newcastle and Pitt joined in an uneasy coalition in which Pitt dominated the armed services planning. He embarked on a program for the 1758 campaign that was largely adult past Loudoun. He had been replaced by Abercrombie as commander in chief afterwards the failures of 1757. Pitt's program called for iii major offensive deportment involving large numbers of regular troops supported by the provincial militias, aimed at capturing the heartlands of New France. Two of the expeditions were successful, with Fort Duquesne and Louisbourg falling to sizable British forces.

1758

The Forbes Expedition was a British campaign in September–October 1758, with vi,000 troops led by General John Forbes sent to drive out the French from the contested Ohio Land. The French withdrew from Fort Duquesne and left the British in control of the Ohio River Valley.^[65] The great French fortress at Louisbourg in Nova Scotia was captured later on a siege.^[66]

The 3rd invasion was stopped with the improbable French victory in the Battle of Carillon, in which 3,600 Frenchmen defeated Abercrombie'due south force of xviii,000 regulars, militia, and Indian allies outside the fort which the French called Carillon and the British chosen Ticonderoga. Abercrombie saved something from the disaster when he sent John Bradstreet on an expedition that successfully destroyed Fort Frontenac, including caches of supplies destined for New France's western forts and furs destined for Europe. Abercrombie was recalled and replaced past Jeffery Amherst, victor at Louisbourg.

The French had mostly poor results in 1758 in most theaters of the war. The new foreign minister was the duc de Choiseul, and he decided to focus on an invasion of Great britain to draw British resources abroad from North America and the European mainland. The invasion failed both militarily and politically, equally Pitt again planned significant campaigns against New French republic and sent funds to Britain's mainland ally of Prussia, while the French Navy failed in the 1759 naval battles at Lagos and Quiberon Bay. In one piece of good fortune, some French supply ships did manage to depart French republic and elude the British blockade of the French coast.

1759–1760

Later a three-calendar month siege of Quebec City, British forces captured the metropolis at the Plains of Abraham.

The British proceeded to wage a campaign in the northwest frontier of Canada in an effort to cut off the French frontier forts to the west and south. They captured Ticonderoga and Fort Niagara, and they defeated the French at the G Islands in the summer of 1759. In September 1759, James Wolfe defeated Montcalm in the Boxing of the Plains of Abraham which claimed the lives of both commanders. After the battle, the French capitulated the city to the British.

In April 1760, François Gaston de Lévis led French forces to launch an attack to retake Quebec. Although he won the Battle of Sainte-Foy, Lévis' subsequent siege of Quebec ended in defeat when British ships arrived to save the garrison. After Lévis had retreated he was given another accident when a British naval victory at Restigouche brought the loss of French ships meant to resupply his army. In July Jeffrey Amherst then led British forces numbering around 18,000 men in a three pronged assail on Montreal. After eliminating French positions along the way all iii forces met up and surrounded Montreal in September. Many Canadians deserted or surrendered their artillery to British forces while the Native allies of the French sought peace and neutrality. De Lévis and the Marquis de Vaudreuil reluctantly signed the Articles of Capitulation of Montreal on September 8 which finer completed the British conquest of New French republic.

Sporadic engagements, 1760–1763

Most of the fighting ended in America in 1760, although it connected in Europe between French republic and Britain. The notable exception was the French seizure of St. John's, Newfoundland. General Amherst heard of this surprise activity and immediately dispatched troops nether his nephew William Amherst, who regained control of Newfoundland later the Battle of Bespeak Hill in September 1762.^[67] Many of the British troops who were stationed in America were reassigned to participate in further British actions in the West Indies, including the capture of Spanish Havana when Espana belatedly entered the disharmonize on the side of France, and a British expedition confronting French Martinique in 1762 led by Major General Robert Monckton.^[68]

Peace

French authorities surrendering Montreal to British forces in 1760.

Governor Vaudreuil in Montreal negotiated a capitulation with General Amherst in September 1760. Amherst granted his requests that any French residents who chose to remain in the colony would exist given freedom to go on worshiping in their Roman Catholic tradition, to own property, and to remain undisturbed in their homes. The British provided medical treatment for the ill and wounded French soldiers, and French regular troops were returned to French republic aboard British ships with an agreement that they were non to serve over again in the present war.^[69]

Full general Amherst also oversaw the transition of French forts to British command in the western lands. The policies which he introduced in those lands disturbed large numbers of Indians and contributed to Pontiac's Rebellion in 1763.^[70] The series of attacks on frontier forts and settlements required the continued deployment of British troops, and it was not resolved until 1766.^[71]

In 1763, Odawa warriors from L'Arbre Croche fought with the French against the British in Montreal, after which most of its residents died during a minor pox epidemic. They were sold a tin can box in Montreal, and were told the box contained something supernatural simply that they were non to open information technology until they returned to their homeland. The box, which independent four or more than nested boxes, had a ane-inch box of moldy particles. After the Odawa returned to their settlement, they opened the box and the disease spread. Entire families of L'Arbre Croche were eliminated and the population of the region was profoundly reduced.^{[72] [73]}

The war in North America, along with the global Seven Years State of war, officially ended with the signing of the Treaty of Paris on 10 February 1763, by the kingdoms of Slap-up Britain, France and Spain, with Portugal in agreement. The British offered France the choice of surrendering either its continental Northward American possessions eastward of the Mississippi or the Caribbean area islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique, which had been occupied by the British. France chose to cede the former but was able to negotiate the retention of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, two modest islands in the Gulf of St. Lawrence, forth with fishing rights in the surface area. They viewed the economic value of the Caribbean islands' sugar cane to be greater and easier to defend than the furs from the continent. French philosopher Voltaire referred to Canada disparagingly as nothing more than than a few acres of snow. The British, however, were happy to take New France, as defense force of their North American colonies would no longer be an issue (though the absenteeism of that threat caused many colonists to conclude they no longer needed British protection). United kingdom besides had aplenty places from which to obtain sugar. Spain traded Florida to United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland in order to regain Cuba, but they also gained Louisiana from France, including New Orleans, in compensation for their losses. Great Great britain and Espana also agreed that navigation on the Mississippi River was to be open to vessels of all nations.^[74]

Consequences

The resulting peace dramatically changed the political landscape of Northward America, with New French republic ceded to the British and the Spanish.

The war inverse economic, political, governmental, and social relations among the three European powers, their colonies, and the people who inhabited those territories. French republic and Uk both suffered financially because of the war, with meaning long-term consequences.

Britain gained control of French Canada and Acadia, colonies containing approximately 80,000 primarily French-speaking Roman Cosmic residents. The deportation of Acadians beginning in 1755 made land available to immigrants from Europe and migrants from the colonies to the south. The British resettled many Acadians throughout its American provinces, only many went to French republic and some went to New Orleans, which they expected to remain French. Some were sent to colonize places every bit various as French Guiana and the Falkland Islands, but these efforts were unsuccessful. The Louisiana population contributed to founding the Cajun population. (The French word "Acadien" changed to "Cadien" then to "Cajun".)^[75]

King George 3 issued the Majestic Proclamation of 1763 on October 7, 1763, which outlined the division and administration of the newly conquered territory, and it continues to govern relations to some extent between the government of Canada and the Get-go Nations. Included in its provisions was the reservation of lands w of the Appalachian Mountains to its Indian population,^[76] a demarcation that was only a temporary impediment to a rising tide of west-leap settlers.^[77] The announcement also independent provisions that prevented borough participation by the Roman Cosmic Canadians.^[78]

A copy of the Quebec Act passed in 1774 which addressed a number of grievances held past French Canadians and Indians, although information technology angered American colonists

The Quebec Deed of 1774 addressed bug brought forth past Roman Catholic French Canadians from the 1763 announcement, and information technology transferred the Indian Reserve into the Province of Quebec. The Act maintained French Civil law, including the seigneurial system, a medieval code removed from France within a generation by the French Revolution. The Quebec Act was a major concern for the largely Protestant Xiii Colonies over the accelerate of "popery". Information technology is typically associated with other Intolerable Acts, legislation that eventually led to the American Revolutionary War. The Quebec Act served as the constitutional document for the Province of Quebec until information technology was superseded by the Constitutional Deed 1791.

The Vii Years' War near doubled Groovy U.k.'southward national debt. The Crown sought sources of revenue to pay it off and attempted to impose new taxes on its colonies. These attempts were met with increasingly strong resistance, until troops were called in to enforce the Crown'south authorization, and they ultimately led to the start of the American Revolutionary War.^[79] France attached comparatively little value to its American possessions, apart from the highly profitable sugar-producing Antilles islands which information technology retained. Minister Choiseul considered that he had made a expert deal at the Treaty of Paris, and Voltaire wrote that Louis XV had lost a few acres of snow. ^[80] However, the armed services defeat and the fiscal burden of the war weakened the French monarchy and contributed to the advent of the French Revolution in 1789.^[81]

The emptying of French power in America meant the disappearance of a stiff ally for some Indian tribes.^[81] The Ohio State was now more available to colonial settlement due to the construction of armed services roads by Braddock and Forbes.^[82] The Castilian takeover of the Louisiana territory was non completed until 1769, and it had modest repercussions. The British takeover of Spanish Florida resulted in the westward migration of Indian tribes who did not want to practise business with them. This migration also caused a rise in tensions between the Choctaw and the Creek, historic enemies who were competing for land.^[83] The change of control in Florida too prompted most of its Spanish Catholic population to leave. Most went to Cuba, although some Christianized Yamasee were resettled to the coast of United mexican states.^[84]

France returned to America in 1778 with the establishment of a Franco-American brotherhood confronting Great britain in the American Revolutionary War, in what historian Alfred A. Cavern describes as French "revenge for Montcalm'southward expiry".^[85]

See also

• American Indian Wars
• Colonial American military history
• French and Indian Wars
• Armed services history of Canada
• Armed services history of Nova Scotia
• War machine history of the Acadians
• Military history of the Mi'kmaq
• Troupes coloniales#List of regiments in New French republic 1755–59

Footnotes

1. ^ Brumwell, pp. 26–31, documents the starting sizes of the expeditions against Louisbourg, Carillon, Duquesne, and West Indies.
2. ^ Brumwell, pp. 24–25.
3. ^ Clodfelter, M. (2017). Warfare and Armed Conflicts: A Statistical Encyclopedia of Prey and Other Figures, 1492–2015 (quaternary ed.). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. ISBN 978-0786474707, p 122
4. ^ Gary Walton; History of the American Economy; page 27
5. ^ "French and Indian War". American History U.s. . Retrieved 2021-07-07 .
6. ^ M. Brook Taylor, Canadian History: a Reader's Guide: Volume one: Ancestry to Confederation (1994) pp 39–48, 72–74
7. ^ ^{a b} "Seven Years' State of war". The Canadian Encyclopedia . Retrieved October 7, 2019. : 1756–1763
8. ^ "The Siege of Quebec: An episode of the Seven Years' War", Canadian National Battlefields Commission, Plains of Abraham website
9. ^ Hall, Richard (2016). "The Causes of the French and Indian State of war and the Origins of the 'Braddock Programme': Rival Colonies and Their Claims to the Disputed Ohio". Atlantic Politics, Military Strategy and the French and Indian War: 21–49. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-30665-0_2. ISBN978-3-319-30664-3.
10. ^ Peyser. Jacques Legardeur de Saint-Pierre: Officeholder, Gentleman, Entrepreneur. Michigan State Academy Printing. p. 221.
11. ^ Eccles, France in America, p. 185
12. ^ ^{a b c} Anderson (2000), p. 747.
13. ^ Jennings, p. xv.
14. ^ Brian Immature (2012). "Below the Academic Radar: Denis Vaugeois and Constructing the Conquest in the Quebec Popular Imagination". In John G. Reid (ed.). Remembering 1759: The Conquest of Canada in Historical Retentiveness. University of Toronto Press. pp. 233–. ISBN978-1-4426-9924-3.
15. ^ Powell, John (2005). Encyclopedia of North American immigration . New York: Facts on File. p. 204. ISBN0816046581.
16. ^ John Wade, "British History Chronologically Arranged, 2: Comprehending a Chamfied Assay of Events and Occurencis in Church and State ... from the Start Invasions by the Romans to A.d. 1847", p.46 [1]
17. ^ Cogliano, Francis D. (2008). Revolutionary America, 1763–1815: A Political History. London: Routledge. p. 32. ISBN9780415964869.
18. ^ Jennings, pp. 9, 176
19. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 23
20. ^ Bleiweis, Sam (2013). "The Downfall of the Iroquios" (PDF). Emory Endeavors in World History. 5: 84–99.
21. ^ Jennings, p. 8
22. ^ Corbett, Theodore K. (1976). "Population Structure in Hispanic St. Augustine, 1629-1763". The Florida Historical Quarterly. Florida Historical Club. 54 (3): 264. JSTOR 30151286.
23. ^ ^{a b c} Anderson (2000), p. 26.
24. ^ ^{a b} Fowler, p. 14.
25. ^ ^{a b} "Park Spotlight: Lake Loramie" Archived 2013-ten-17 at the Wayback Car, Ohio Land Parks Magazine, Jump 2006
26. ^ Fowler, p. 15.
27. ^ Alfred P. James, The Ohio Company: Its Inner History (1959) pp. 26–forty
28. ^ Jennings, p. xv
29. ^ Jennings, p. 18
30. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 28
31. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 27
32. ^ Fowler, p. 31.
33. ^ O'Meara, p. 48
34. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 42–43
35. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 43
36. ^ Jennings, p. 63
37. ^ Fowler, p. 35.
38. ^ Ellis, His Excellency George Washington, p. v.
39. ^ Fowler, p. 36.
40. ^ O'Meara, pp. 37–38.
41. ^ O'Meara, p. 41
42. ^ O'Meara, pp. 43–45
43. ^ Jennings, p. 65
44. ^ Anderson (2000), p. l
45. ^ Anderson, Fred (200). Crucible of State of war. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. pp. 52–53. ISBN9780307425393.
46. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 51–59.
47. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 59–65.
48. ^ Fowler, p. 52.
49. ^ Lengel p. 52.
50. ^ O'Meara, p. 113.
51. ^ Fowler, pp. 74–75.
52. ^ ^{a b} Fowler, p. 98.
53. ^ ^{a b} "The Battle of the Monongahela". World Digital Library. 1755. Retrieved 2013-08-03 .
54. ^ O'Meara, pp. 110–111.
55. ^ O'Meara, p. 163.
56. ^ An act for the speedy and effectual recruiting of his Majesty's land forces and marines., p.318
57. ^ An act to enable his Majesty to grant commissions to a certain number of foreign Protestants who have served abroad equally officers, or engineers, to human action and rank as officers, or engineers, in America merely, under certain restrictions and qualifications., p.331
58. ^ An act for the better supply of mariners and seamen to serve in his Majesty'due south ships of war, and on board merchant ships, and other trading ships and vessels., p.370
59. ^ An human activity for extending (the Navy Act 1748, 22 Geo. 2 c. 33) (for amending, explaining, and reducing into i deed of parliament the laws relating to the authorities of his Majesty'south ships, vessels and forces past sea) to such officers, seamen, and others, equally shall serve on board his Majesty'south ships or vessels employed upon the lakes, peachy waters, or rivers, in North America., p.457
60. ^ An act for the encouragement of seamen, and the more than effectual manning of his Majesty's navy. p.481
61. ^ Patterson, Stephen E. (1994). "1744–1763: Colonial Wars and Aboriginal Peoples". In Buckner, Phillip; Reid, John (eds.). The Atlantic Region to Confederation: A History. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. p. 152. ISBN0802005535.
62. ^ Nester, pp. 53–61
63. ^ Fowler, p. 138.
64. ^ Fowler, p. 139.
65. ^ Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of State of war: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. pp. 267–285. ISBN0375406425.
66. ^ William, Forest, The Great Fortress: A Chronicle of Louisbourg 1720–1760 ([2] Online from Project Gutenberg)
67. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 498
68. ^ Cave, p. 21
69. ^ "Treaty of Paris Feb 10, 1763". FrenchandIndianWar.info . Retrieved Jan 21, 2015.
70. ^ Jennings, p. 439
71. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 617–632
72. ^ Karamanski, Theodore J. (2012). Blackbird's song : Andrew J. Blackbird and the Odawa people. E Lansing: Michigan State University Printing. pp. 6–seven. ISBN978-1-61186-050-4.
73. ^ Otto, Simon; Cappel, Constance (2007). The smallpox genocide of the Odawa tribe at 50'Arbre Croche, 1763: the history of a Native American people. Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press. ISBN978-0-7734-5220-6.
74. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 505–506
75. ^ Calloway, pp. 161–164
76. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 565–566
77. ^ Anderson (2000), pp. 636–637
78. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 568
79. ^ Anderson, Fred. "The Real First Earth War and the Making of America Archived 2010-01-31 at the Wayback Machine" American Heritage, November/December 2005.
80. ^ Cave, p. 52
81. ^ ^{a b} Cave, p. xii
82. ^ Anderson (2000), p. 525
83. ^ Calloway, pp. 133–138
84. ^ Calloway, pp. 152–156
85. ^ Cave, p. 82

Bibliography

• Anderson, Fred (2000). Crucible of War: The Seven Years' War and the Fate of Empire in British North America, 1754–1766. New York: Knopf. ISBN978-0-375-40642-iii.
• Anderson, Fred (2005). The State of war that Made America: A Short History of the French and Indian War. New York: Viking. ISBN978-0-670-03454-iii. – Released in conjunction with the 2006 PBS miniseries The War that Made America.
• Brumwell, Stephen (2006). Redcoats: The British Soldier and War in the Americas, 1755–1763. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-67538-three.
• Calloway, Colin G (2006). The Scratch of a Pen: 1763 and the Transformation of North America. Oxford Academy Press. ISBN978-0-xix-530071-0.
• Cave, Alfred A. (2004). The French and Indian State of war. Westport, Connecticut - London: Greenwood Press. ISBN978-0-313-32168-nine.
• Eckert, Allan W. Wilderness Empire. Bantam Books, 1994, originally published 1969. ISBN 0-553-26488-5. 2d book in a series of historical narratives, with emphasis on Sir William Johnson. Academic historians often regard Eckert's books, which are written in the fashion of novels, to be unreliable, as they comprise things similar dialogue that is clearly fictional.
• Ellis, Joseph J. (2004). His Excellency George Washington. New York: Vintage Books. ISBN978-1-4000-3253-2.
• Fowler, William K. (2005). Empires at War: The French and Indian State of war and the Struggle for N America, 1754-1763. New York: Walker. ISBN978-0-8027-1411-iv.
• Gipson, Lawrence H. The Great War for the Empire: The Years of Defeat, 1754–1757 (1948); The Great War for the Empire: The Victorious Years, 1758–1760 (1950) highly detailed narrative of the British war in N America and Europe.

• Jacobs, Wilbur R. Affairs and Indian Gifts: Anglo-French Rivalry Along the Ohio and Northwest Frontiers, 1748-1763 (1949) excerpt

• Jennings, Francis (1988). Empire of Fortune: Crowns, Colonies, and Tribes in the Seven Years' War in America. New York: Norton. ISBN978-0-393-30640-8.
• Murrin, John Yard. (1973). "The French and Indian War, the American Revolution, and the Counterfactual Hypothesis: Reflections on Lawrence Henry Gipson and John Shy". Reviews in American History. i (3): 307–318. doi:ten.2307/2701135. JSTOR 2701135.
• Nester, William R (2000). The starting time global war: Britain, France, and the fate of North America, 1756–1775. Westport, CT: Praeger. ISBN978-0-275-96771-0. OCLC 41468552.
• Nester, William R. The French and Indian State of war and the Conquest of New France (2015). excerpt
• O'Meara, Walter (1965). Guns at the Forks. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. ISBN978-0-8229-5309-viii.
• Parkman, Francis. Montcalm and Wolfe: The French and Indian War. Originally published 1884. New York: Da Capo, 1984. ISBN 0-306-81077-eight.
• W, Doug (2016) French and Indian War – A Short History 30 Minute Volume Series
• "Virtual Vault". Library and Archives Canada.

External links

• The French and Indian War Website
• Map of French and Indian War. French and British forts and settlements, Indian tribes.
• French and Indian War Profile and Videos – Chickasaw.TV
• The War That Made America from PBS
• FORGOTTEN WAR: Struggle for North America from PBS
• Seven Years' War timeline
• Montcalm and Wolfe, by Francis Parkman online ebook
• Animated Map of the French and Indian War developed past HistoryAnimated.com

hayesherst2000.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War

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